After Caesar spent 51 BC and the better part of 50 BC touring his newly conquered province of Gaul, political chaos was developing back in Rome. The optimates despised Caesar and his conquests (viewing much of his campaigning as unnecessary and illegal) and looked for every opportunity to strip him of his command. These conquests not only brought in a great number of slaves, but brought so much monetary wealth into Rome, that the value of gold was actually reduced by as much as 1/4 or even 1/3 of its value before the wars. Though the common people noticed little effect, and seemingly loved Caesar, the optimates had a great deal to lose from this devaluation of their wealth. That was only one small piece of the puzzle, however.

 Caesar’s original Consulship in 59 BC was one in which he not only obstructed optimate interests but pushed forward a populares agenda that not only made life miserable for the conservatives but generally rejected some Roman laws and political customs. Such actions were destabilizing and dangerous for the health of the Republican system.

They wanted to prosecute Caesar for a variety of reasons, including conducting an illegal war into Germania that the Senate never authorized. In fact, many argued that the protection of Cisalpine Gaul and Narbonensis didn’t require the war that Caesar conducted in the larger part of Gaul in the first place. Prosecuting Caesar, whether the goal was death, exile or just a symbolic limitation of his power, would prevent his re-establishment of the populares agenda that he so masterfully manipulated previously. The years 50 and 49 BC were pivotal because during this time, Caesar’s ‘imperium’ or safety from prosecution was set to expire. Caesar badly desired the ability to run for the Consulship in abstentia, thereby allowing him the safe transfer of protection from his Proconsular Imperium, granted by his command in Gaul, back to that of the actual Consulship once again.

By this time, however, Pompey, likely the only man able to smooth things over, had clearly sided with the optimates. His jealously over Caesar’s success and his ultimate goal of acceptance and power within the Senate took him ever further from the alliance with Caesar. The Lex Pompeia De Magistratibus that was passed while Pompey was Consul without colleague forced any candidate for Consul to be present in Rome to run for office, and of course, one couldn’t legally bring their legions to Rome for protection. Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Consul for 51 BC, tried to have Caesar recalled from his command prior to its actual legal expiration, and in 50 BC, his cousin Gaius Claudius Marcellus attempted to the same. Caesar’s only hope in Rome from a legal standpoint was the intervention of the Tribunes of the Plebes, who managed to veto any attempts to bring Caesar to his knees.

The situation continued in a virtual stalemate, with neither side willing to budge on their legal standpoints. More optimate officials were elected in 50 BC to take office for 49, but Caesar still managed to hold ground. His legate Marcus Antonius was elected as Tribune for the same year, and a former opponent, Gaius Scribonius Curio was also elected but paid handsomely to side with Caesar. 49 BC was shaping up to be yet another stalemate politically for Caesar, but he was quite simply running out of time. Already, in the autumn of 50 BC, in an effort to weaken Caesar, the Senate asked both he and Pompey to give up one legion each (Pompey had his armies in Spain) to secure the east against Parthia. In a wise move, the Senate boldly stripped Caesar of 2 legions though, 1 of his own, and one that Pompey had lent Caesar several years earlier during the Gallic revolt. Caesar was left with 8 legions and the legions that he had given up were never sent to Parthia. They stayed in Italy and were given to Pompey in a shrewd move that strengthened Pompey while weakening Caesar.

By late 50 BC, various attempts were made by the Consul Marcellus to stifle Caesar’s tribunes and allow some measures of anti-Caesarean policy to go through. Curio however turned the tables and forced a unique vote to the senate floor. On December 1, 50 BC, Curio proposed a motion that would force both Pompey and Caesar to simultaneously lay down their commands, and the motion was passed 370 votes to 22. Though the Senate vote indicated that civil war was trying to be avoided, the hatred and/or political fear of Caesar simply couldn’t compromised. The following day, before the measure could even be brought to Caesar, Consuls Gaius Claudius Marcellus and Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Crus ignored the Senate vote. In what was certainly an illegal action, in an era filled with political illegalities, the consuls ordered Pompey to take up command of the local legions and to raise more in defense of Rome against Caesar.

 The people of Rome (via the tribunes) were ignored and even the Senate in this case, though it’s assured that the optimates played a major part. Certainly fearing the worst, Cicero tried to counteract this measure and avert what appeared to be a growing danger of civil war. He met with and attempted to influence Pompey into working for a compromise, but Pompey refused, and meanwhile, Caesar waited in Gaul.Though Caesar held Rome in a precarious position by the strength of his army and the continuation of his political agenda, the Senate must hold some blame for pushing a known radical into a no-win situation. Caesar’s options in these later developments were either to surrender willingly and face certain prosecution (though the outcome of such prosecution could certainly have gone either way as Caesar did have plenty of support.. and money), or go to war. Caesar clearly had ambition that exceeded the standard and faced with personal ruin and disgrace vs. the potential disaster that a civil war could cause the Roman state, Caesar obviously chose his own status above that of Rome.

 Despite this, he began to behave rather conciliatory, perhaps sensing the dire circumstances. After having essentially been declared war on by the Senate, he attempted to offer a compromise. First he asked to be allowed to maintain his governorship of Cisalpine Gaul and 2 legions, or Illyricum and only 1 legion, until such time as he could be elected Consul and enter Rome free from fear of prosecution. The Senate didn’t act on this measure at all, though it was probably hotly debated. Without getting a response, Caesar decided to offer the same measure that already passed the Senate just a month earlier. Curio, in late December, offered that Caesar would agree to the original proposal that both he and Pompey dismiss their armies simultaneously.

 This time though, there was great debate and the Senate was divided on the issue. Whether certain members of Senate did not really desire peace, were prepared to risk war in order to defeat Caesar, or were naive enough to think that war could be averted by threatening Caesar is not entirely certain, but perhaps they simply felt that Rome would hold the loyalty of the people and that Pompey would ultimately crush Caesar if war could not be avoided.On January 1, 49 BC and the days immediately following, the Senate rejected Caesar’s final peace proposal and declared him hostis, or a public enemy. Caesar would have to give up his command completely or face war.

The Tribunes attempted to block the measure through the people once again, but this time the Senate was entrenched. Much like Caesar, they too threw constitutionality to the wind and ignored the Tribunes using physical violence to stop their objections. Around the 10th of January 49 BC, word reached Caesar and he marched south with the 13th Legion from Ravenna towards the southern limit of Cisalpine Gaul’s border. He likely arrived around January 11, and stopped on the northern bank of the small river border, the Rubicon.Caesar seemed to contemplate the situation understandably for some time before making his final fateful decision. First testing the loyalty of his men, (he only had the 13th legion with him at this point) he gave a stirring speech pointing out the wrongs done to him (and the tribunes). With the clear support of his men Caesar added, “Even yet we may draw back; but once across that little bridge, and the whole issue is with the sword.” He is then reported to have muttered the now infamous phrase, from the work of the poet Menander, “Alea iacta est”, quoted as “Let the die be cast” or “Let the dice fly high.” The Rubicon was crossed and Caesar officially invaded the legal border from his province into Italy, thus starting the civil war.

 Quickly taking several northern towns, the news reached Rome by January 17. Pompey, the Republic’s hope, was left without his main army which was still in Spain, and his support base was in the eastern provinces. Despite having 2 legions to Caesar’s 1, Caesar’s Gallic legions were on the move to join him so Pompey and the rest of Caesar’s opposition had little choice but to leave Rome immediately and abandon Italy to Caesar.

This week’s question concerns the videos, the articles on the blog and pages 82-85 of your text. You’ll need to read about the Punic Wars before you try and answer these questions. There are two parts.. be sure to ANSWER BOTH…remember the “three strikes rule” on spelling and punctuation…write on MS Word correct your writing and then cut and paste it to the blog window..

In the Second Punic War, what was the importance of Carthaginian general Hannibal Barca during the campaign against the Roman army and why was Quintus Fabius’ strategy to deal with Hannibal so unique to the Roman military? 

and:

Hypothesize what might have happened to the balance of power in the Mediterranean if Hannibal had conquered the city of Rome.

Remember your corrected answers must be posted no later than Tuesday, 19 February at  23:59:59 to receive credit. Do a good job… 25% of your grade depends on it. Now let’s get to work! 

The Senate was a council originally made up of three hundred members, chosen among the leaders of the people, former judges, etc. It received foreign Ambassadors and signed treaties with the former foreign countries, appointed the Province governors, controlled the public administration and made the laws.
Given its great experience and authority, the Senate had been the main body of the Republican government for several centuries.

In order to avoid abuses, the MAGISTRATES held office only one year — the CENSORS eighteen months – and then were replaced through new elections. 

 They were divided as follows:
The CONSULS  (advisors), two in number, presided over the Senate and the Comitia. They introduced bills (proposals) that would become law and commanded the army in war. In Rome they ruled a month each; in the army they commanded a day each…this will get them into trouble…as you can guess.

The COMITIA CENTURIATA elected the consuls, the praetors, and the censors, they decided about peace or war; they judged criminal cases that involved death sentences for Roman citizens.
In the COMITIA TRIBUATIA the citizens met according to their tribe (according to the area where they lived), without discriminations: each tribe included patricians and plebeians who voted together. In each of the tribes were the majority of voters. The Comitia tributa elected the Aedili and Quaestors. They were the more democratic form of popular assembly and their importance increased with time. The Assembly of the plebs was mainly formed by plebians who elected the tribunes of the people.

THE LAWS OF THE TWELVE TABLES ADDRESSED PROPERTY, FAMILY, CRIME, THEFT, MARRIAGE AND INHERITANCE. THE LAWS DID TRY TO BE FAIR.WHAT MATTERS IS THAT THESE LAWS WERE WRITTEN DOWN AND ACTUALLY ENGRAVED ON METAL PLATES AND POSTED IN THE ROMAN FORUM, SO THAT EVERYONE COULD SEE THEM. YOU PASSED BY THEM EVERY DAY. THE LAWS WERE THE SAME FOR EVERYONE, RICH OR POOR. NO ONE COULD SAY THEY DID NOT KNOW WHAT THE LAW WAS..IGNORANCE OF THE LAW WAS NO EXCUSE. (At the time, only adult free males were citizens. Women, children, and slaves were not citizens.) 

LIKE THE ROMAN CONSTITUTION, THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION IS UNWRITTEN..UNWRITTEN ? WHAT? SO HOW DOES THAT WORK? THE WORD “CONSTITUTION” TO THE ROMANS AND THE BRITISH MEANS A TRADITION OF LAW AND PROCEDURE THAT SHOULD NEVER BE VIOLATED. MANY DOCUMENTS OVER THE CENTURIES MAKE UP THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION AND PRESUMABLY THAT MEANS THE BRITISH CONSTITUTION WILL CONTINUE TO GROW.

 IN THE U.S. THE WORD “CONSTITUTION” MEANS ONE ACTUAL DOCUMENT ENTITLED “THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.” THIS DOCUMENT YOU MIGHT ACTUALLY TOUCH…(IT’S UNDER GLASS AND GUARD AT THE NATIONAL ARCHIVES IN WASHINGTON, D.C. OK, SO YOU CAN’T REALLY TOUCH IT.. BUT IT IS A DOCUMENT)

THESE CONSTITUTIONS FORM THE BASIS OF HOW THE PEOPLE LIVING IN ROME OR THESE LATER COUNTRIES AND THEIR COLONIES GOVERNED AND RULED THEMSELVES. IT WAS TO THE ROMANS A SACRED AND RELIGIOUS RESPONSIBILITY TO OBSERVE THESE LAWS. WHILE CHRISTIANS AND JEWS WOULD FOLLOW TEN COMMANDMENTS, THE ROMANS WOULD FOLLOW THE “LAW” ON THE TWELVE TABLES.

REMEMBER THAT OUR STUDY OF HISTORY IS OFTEN SOMEWHAT DEPENDENT ON THE SCIENCE OF ARCHAEOLOGY. I AM PROVIDING YOU WITH A TRANSLATION OF WHAT CAN BE FOUND “IN STONE” OF THE SACRED ROMAN ”TWELVE TABLES.” REVIEW THIS SECTION CAREFULLY…TAKE GOOD NOTES ON NOTECARDS AND BE COMPLETELY PREPARED FOR THE TWELVE TABLES QUIZ THIS WEEK.. 

Table I. 1. If anyone summons a man before the magistrate, he must go. If the man summoned does not go, let the one summoning him call the bystanders to witness and then take him by force. 2. If he shirks or runs away, let the summoner lay hands on him. 3. If illness or old age is the hindrance, let the summoner provide a team. He need not provide a covered carriage with a pallet unless he chooses.